![]() 1300, but the modern English "crusade" dates to the early 1700s. The use of croiserie, "crusade" in Middle English can be dated to c. By the mid 13th century the cross became the major descriptor of the crusades with crux transmarina-"the cross overseas"-used for crusades in the eastern Mediterranean, and crux cismarina-"the cross this side of the sea"-for those in Europe. This led to the French term croisade-the way of the cross. A specific term for a crusader in the form of crucesignatus-"one signed by the cross"-emerged in the early 12th century. Crusader terminology remained largely indistinguishable from that of Christian pilgrimage during the 12th century. Īt the time of the First Crusade, iter, "journey", and peregrinatio, "pilgrimage" were used for the campaign. Most modern Crusades historians consider a combination of pluralism and popularism, which is also the focus of this article. Generalists focus on the basic phenomenon of Latin holy wars. Popularists focus on the popular groundswells of religious fervour. Pluralists view Crusades as military expeditions that enjoyed papal endorsement, including those to the Holy Land before and after 1291, to Northern Europe and Iberia, and against Christians. ![]() Traditionalists view Crusades as only those to the Holy Land from 1095 to 1291. The meaning of a "crusade" is generally viewed in one of four ways. What constituted a "crusade" has been understood in diverse ways, particularly regarding the early Crusades, and the definition remains a matter of debate among contemporary historians. These differed from other Christian religious wars in that they were considered a penitential exercise, and so earned participants forgiveness for all confessed sins. The conflicts to which the term is applied has been extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church against pagans, heretics or for alleged religious ends. ![]() 1490Īccording to modern historiography the term "crusade" ( / k r uː ˈ s eɪ d/ kroo- SAYD) first referred to military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to the Holy Land. Terminology The Siege of Damascus (1148) as depicted in the Passages d'outremer, c. Unsanctioned by the church, there were also several popular Crusades. Crusades were called against the Cathars in Languedoc and against Bosnia against the Waldensians in Savoy and the Hussites in Bohemia and in response to the rise of the Ottoman Empire. ![]() In 1199, Pope Innocent III began the practice of proclaiming crusades against what the Latin Church considered heretic Christian communities. From 1147, campaigns in Northern Europe against pagan tribes were considered crusades. The struggle between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula was proclaimed a crusade in 1123, but eventually became better known as the Reconquista, and only ended in 1492 with the fall of the Emirate of Granada. Other church-sanctioned campaigns include crusades against Christians not obeying papal rulings, against the Ottoman Empire, and for political reasons. After this, no further large military campaigns were organised. A European presence remained in the region in some form until the fall of Acre in 1291. Initial successes established four Crusader states: the County of Edessa the Principality of Antioch the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli. Later expeditions were conducted by generally more organized armies, sometimes led by a king. Participants came from all over Europe and had a variety of motivations, including religious salvation, satisfying feudal obligations, opportunities for renown, and economic or political advantage. Across all social strata in western Europe there was an enthusiastic response. He encouraged military support for Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos and called for an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem. In 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed the first expedition at the Council of Clermont. Crusading declined rapidly after the 15th century. Beginning with the First Crusade, which resulted in the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, dozens of military campaigns were organised, providing a focal point of European history for centuries. The best known of these military expeditions are those to the Holy Land in the period between 10 that were intended to conquer Jerusalem and its surrounding area from Muslim rule. ![]() The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Christian Latin Church in the medieval period. ![]()
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